A Geographical-Historical Outline of Svalbard

by Ole Humlum, UNIS, Department of Geology, Svalbard, Norway

Svalbard includes all landmasses between 74 and 81 degrees North and between 10 and 35 degrees East, including the sea within a territorial boundary 4 nautical miles from land.

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General

Svalbard is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean, about midway between Norway and the North Pole. Svalbard comprises all islands between latitude 74° North and latitude 81° North and between longitude 10° East and longitude 35° East, including the sea within a territorial boundary 4 nautical miles from land. The principal islands are Spitsbergen, Nordaustlandet, Barentsøya, Edgeøya, Kong Karls Land, Prins Karls Forland, and Bjørnøya (Bear Island). The total area is 62,160 sq km (about 24,000 sq mi), which is only slightly smaller than West Virginia in USA and almost 1.5 times the area of Denmark in Europe. With the exception of some coastal lowlands, the landscape is mountainous with many large and small glaciers. The highest peak (Newtontoppen) reaches 1717 m asl.

Geology

The geological history of Svalbard spans >400 million years and comprises a fairly continuous succession of Precambrian metamorphic rocks, to Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, as well as Tertiary to Quaternary strata. Fossils are found in many bedrock layers, ranging from simple organisms in the oldest horizons to dinosaurs in the Mesozoic and flowering plants in the Tertiary deposits. Svalbard has been greatly affected by crustal movements along north-south trending lines with folding and trusting of crustal blocks taking place over a long period of time. Continental drift associated with the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean during the past 56 millions of years has separated Svalbard from its former position along northernmost Greenland, at that time located a few hundreds kilometers further south compared to the present position.

Igneous and metamorphic bedrock comprises the deepest and oldest type of bedrock on Svalbard and is mainly found in western and northeastern Spitsbergen, plus the northern part of Nordaustlandet. Sedimentary rocks were laid down by rivers and in the ocean from Devonian to Tertiary times. Apart from gentle folding and trusting these deposits have remained undisturbed, but is now litified. Together, they have a thickness in excess of 15,000 m and form a huge through-shaped structure extending from Isfjorden towards the south. In the Tertiary deposits, layers of coal are found, basis for the mining industry on Svalbard. The youngest types of deposit are from the Quaternary period and are represented by unconsolidated glacial, periglacial and fluvial deposits.

Climate

Isfjorden, central Spitsbergen, July 2001

TEMPERATURE

Meteorological observations on Svalbard were initiated in 1912. The present climate of Svalbard is arctic and the late 20^th century mean annual air temperature is about –6^oC at sea level and as low as –15^oC in the high mountains.  At Longyearbyen in central Spitsbergen the coldest month is February with –15.2^oC, the warmest month is July with 6.2^oC and the mean annual air temperature is –5.8^oC (average 1975-2000). Especially in the coastal regions, air temperatures on Svalbard are very much controlled by sea surface temperatures. 

Svalbard is often referred to as an example of a significant 20th century temperature rise (almost 4^oC). In this context, however, it should be noted that this temperature increase almost entirely took place within the period 1915-1922, as is shown in the diagram below. This temperature rise was concurrently experienced at most other North Atlantic measurement sites and was presumably caused by North Atlantic oceanographic changes. 

Since 1930 the mean annual air temperature at sea level have been more or less stable around –6^oC, although with superimposed 1-3^oC interannual variations. Such interannual temperature variations are especially large (3-6^oC) for the winter season and smaller for the summer season (0.2-0.6^oC), as is seen in the diagram below.

Svalbard annual air temperatures (deg.C) and precipitation (mm w.e.) since 1912. Solid lines represent running 5-yr mean values.

Observed late 20th century surface temperature changes in the Arctic are quite complex as is illustrated in the diagrams below, showing 10-yr variations in 5-yr running mean temperatures at the end of the 20th century. Some regions show warming in some seasons and cooling in other seasons. For this reason annual average values should only be interpreted with great care. In addition, regions exposed to warming (or cooling) in some seasons for a given time period, may experience a similar cooling (or warming) in the subsequent period. As one example of such a development, Greenland experienced winter warming 1970-1980, significant cooling 1980-1990 and warming 1990-1998. In a more continental context, Northern North America presently (1990-1998) experiences annual warming, while Russia, Siberia and parts of Europe are exposed to annual cooling, especially derived from changes in the winter and autumn season.

Areally interpolated changes in seasonal and annual surface air temperatures in the Arctic, calculated as 5-yr running means for the period 1990-2000. Winter = December-February (DJF); spring=March-May (MAM); summer=June-August (JJA); autumn=September-November (SON).

Svalbard experienced a significant winter cooling 1970-1980, warming 1980-1990 and relatively little change 1990-1998. During the summer, Svalbard was exposed to slight cooling 1970-1980, slight warming 1980-1990 and relatively little change 1990-1998.

What about late 20th century  Antarctic temperature variations ?

PRECIPITATION

The amount of late 20th century precipitation in the Svalbard region have specific interest from an overall meteorological and climatological point of view. This is due to the fact that the major transport pathway of precipitable water vapor into the climatically sensitive zone of the Arctic Basin is near the prime meridian (10^oW-50^oE) in association with the North Atlantic cyclone track, that is, more or less directly across the Svalbard region. 

Especially during the winter season (DFJ) meridional moisture transport both along this sector and averaged over all longitudes exhibit a positive relationship with the phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO; diagram below), one of the most robust recurrent modes of atmospheric behavior. However, the specific climatic and geomorphic response of the Arctic to annual and longer-period changes in the NAO is still not well understood. The postwar period, which includes the most comprehensive instrumental record, contains a change in NAO from a persistent low index in the 1960s to a persistent high index in the late 1980s/early 1990s. This shift was accompanied, among other changes, by an intensifying storm track through the Nordic Seas, a radical increase in the atmospheric moisture flux convergence and winter precipitation in this sector, an increase in the amount and temperature of the Atlantic water inflow to the Arctic Ocean via both inflow branches (Barents Sea Throughflow and West Spitsbergen Current), a decrease in the late-winter extent of sea ice throughout the European subarctic, and an increase in the annual volume flux of ice from the Fram Strait.

NAO index for winter (DJF) since 1824. The zero value for the index is the numerical average for the whole period since 1824. Most other NAO diagrams differ from this by taking the average 1961-90 (a period characterised by low NAO values; see above) as the zero value, thereby displacing the whole  data series toward positive values.

Precipitation measured at sea level is low, only about 200 mm w.e. in central Spitsbergen (central panel in diagram below) and somewhat higher, about 400-600 mm w.e., along both the western and eastern coasts of the island. Usually April-May is dry as can be seen from the diagram below, although large interannual differences are quite normal. The periods February-March and  August-September tend to be comparatively humid, although very large interannual differences once again are to be expected. Also December-January may see heavy snowfalls in some years. Snow is the dominant type of precipitation.

Monthly Longyearbyen air temperatures, precipitation and NAO-index since 1965.

Somewhat contrary to expectations usually set forth (see above) there is only a weak association between the monthly precipitation and the monthly NAO index (diagram above). In general, however, the dry spring period is characterized by relatively low NAO values. During the remaining part of the year the relation between precipitation and NAO apparently is more complex, especially during the winter. This presumably reflects that 1) a major part of the winter precipitation registered on Svalbard is of local origin (showers derived from evaporation from nearby open water) associated low wind speeds and 2) that solid precipitation derived from cyclonic convergence usually falls during high wind speeds where precipitation often will be seriously underestimated by existing gauges.

The precipitation on Svalbard increases with altitude, about 10-20% per 100 m, and for that reason glacier mass balance investigations as well as fluvial discharge measurements signals an annual precipitation in excess of 700-900 mm w.e. in many highlands, even in the dry interior of Spitsbergen.

Svalbard as seen in AVHRR-NOAA satellite image 2002.03.24. Sea temperatures, sea ice cover and regional air flow is important for cloud cover formation and distribution of precipitation.

WIND

The effect of wind is significant, partly because of its strength, partly because of the absence of high vegetation such as trees. The dominant wind direction across the islands is from SSE towards NNW, although the local wind direction may vary very much due to channeling effects by topography and according to the meteorological situation. Even during the summer, wind from NW and N may bring cold polar air masses and snow showers to the islands within few hours. For that reason, snow may fall at any altitude in any month of the year. At sea level the ground surface is usually snow covered from late September to early June, while altitudes above 600-800 m tend to be covered continuously by snow, except for peaked topography and wind exposed slopes.

OCEAN

A branch of the North Atlantic Current reaches the west coast and northern tip of the main island Spitsbergen, keeping water temperatures high and the sea open and navigable most years along the southern part of the west coast. Low temperatures and heavy icing conditions, however, make shipping operations during wintertime hazardous especially for smaller vessels. The eastern cost of Spitsbergen and the coasts of the eastern islands usually are ice-bound for most of the year. The polar sea ice in February-April usually extends to reach Bear Island about one-half of the way to northernmost Norway. Significant interannual variations in the extent of the sea ice cover are quite common, depending upon air temperature and wind conditions.

INSOLATION

Longyearbyen has midnight sun from April 20th to August 23rd and the sun is below the horizon from October 26th to February 16th. Because of influence of the atmosphere, the time with midnight sun is somewhat longer than the time of darkness. Reflectance of sunlight in the atmosphere likewise ensures that it is not completely dark before the sun is more than 6º under the horizon. The real "Polar Night" (i.e. 24 hours of complete darkness) is therefore only experienced in Longyearbyen between November 14th and January 29th. During the winter the Northern Lights (Aurora Borealis) is a frequent phenomena.

SUMMING UP

Summing up, the high climatic sensitivity of the Svalbard region derives from three mechanisms. Firstly, the islands are located directly in the above-mentioned main transport pathway for moisture and air masses into the Arctic Basin. Secondly, Svalbard is located near the confluence of air masses and ocean currents with very different temperature characteristics. Finally, the sensitivity is further enhanced by rapid variations in the sea-ice extent, which are coupled with both atmospheric and oceanic circulation.

Geomorphology

Brokebreen at the southern shore of Magdalenefjorden in NW Spitsbergen. On either sides of the glacier lateral moraines is seen, indicating the Little Ice Age size of the glacier, at that time terminating into the fjord. The glacier carries supraglacial debris, derived from the adjoining mountains by weathering. The highest peaks reaches about 900 m asl. July 2001. 

Svalbard falls within the zone of continuous permafrost and periglacial and permafrost-related terrain features are widespread in areas not covered by glaciers. At the coasts the permafrost thickness is small, only 10-40 m, but increases to more than 450 m in the highlands. Terrain phenomena such as pingos, ice wedges and rock glaciers are widespread, especially in the dry central regions of Spitsbergen. Snow avalanches are frequent, especially on downwind slopes. Periglacial features such as solifluction (gelifluction) lobes are found, although especially in the more humid western regions. Also various forms of patterned ground such as stone circles and –stripes are widespread and well developed. Fluvial activity is important especially during the spring melt (the nival flood), but remains so for most of the summer as well. Large braided river systems draining glaciers are found in most major valleys, transporting large amounts of sediments into the fjords. When these riverbeds dry up during the autumn, wind erosion of fresh fine-grained sediments lead to deposition of eolian sediments (loess) downwind the rivers. This process eventually comes to a stop when the winter snow cover is firmly established in October-November.

About 60% of the islands is presently covered by glaciers, many of which terminates with calving fronts into the ocean. Bjørnøya is the only major island within Svalbard without glaciers. In central Spitsbergen most glaciers are comparatively small due to the dry climate, but along both the west and east coast of Spitsbergen large valley glaciers and ice caps dominate. On the eastern islands, Edgeøya, Barentsøya and Nordaustlandet several large ice caps are found. Due to low air temperatures and low precipitation most glaciers in the dry interior of Spitsbergen move rather sluggish, only 1-2 m per year and therefore are only little crevassed. In the more humid regions along the coasts, however, glacier velocities of more than 10-30 m per year and large crevasses are frequent. A significant number of glaciers in Svalbard from time to time advance with extraordinary high velocity, up to several kilometers during 3-6 years. This surge-behavior is characteristic for at least 30% of all glaciers in Svalbard and possibly up to about 60% of all glaciers displays this kind of behavior from time to time, with a recurrent interval of 50-100 years. A 30 km wide sector of the large ice cap on Nordaustlandet, Austfonna, between 1936 and 1938 experienced at surge advance of more than 20 km into the ocean. This is presumably the longest surge advance ever recorded at any glacier on this planet.

Fridtjovbreen, western Spitsbergen, shortly after its late 20th century surge

The mass balance of many glaciers in Svalbard is partly controlled by snowdrift during the winter and many glaciers for that reason face downwind, that is, towards NNW and NW. Glaciers along the east coasts presumably receive huge amounts of snow from snow drifting across the sea ice cover during the winter, driven by southeasterly winds.

During the Weichselian glacial maximum (about 22,000 yr BP), Svalbard glaciers extended beyond the present coast and terminated at the edge of the shelf to west. According to present opinion the Svalbard glaciation at the last glacial maximum was coherent with an ice sheet covering the Barents Sea, representing a northern extension of the European ice sheet. Some of the highest mountains, especially along the western coast of Spitsbergen, may have escaped glaciation and protruded above the ice cover as nunataks.

At the end of the Weichselian, about 12,500 years ago, temperatures rapidly rose and glaciers in Svalbard melted back. Due to the eustatic sea level rise brought about by the retreating North American and European Ice Sheets, coastal regions were submerged by the rising sea up to about 60-80 m above the modern coastline. Following this, isostatic effects of the decreasing ice load within the Svalbard region again brought about a relative sea level fall to the present situation.

During the early part of the present interglacial, the Holocene, mean annual air temperatures in Svalbard presumably were higher than now, up to 3-4^oC, and glaciers and permafrost was reduced compared to modern conditions. Several of the present glaciers were presumably not in existence at that time. About 4000 years ago, a climatic change towards lower temperatures and presumably also wetter conditions began within the North Atlantic region and both glaciers and permafrost thickness have displayed a growing trend since then. Well preserved plant remains found beneath a glacier near the town Longyearbyen, about 2 km upstream in relation to the present glacier terminus, were covered by the advancing glacier about 1600 years ago. Most glaciers on Svalbard attained their Holocene maximum extension only 80-100 years ago, at the end of the Little Ice Age.

Following the meteorological change 1915-1922 (see above) many glaciers on Svalbard have had negative mass balance and have lost part of their volume. This has especially affected smaller glaciers and to lesser degree, larger glaciers with accumulation areas situated high above sea level. The negative mass balance is apparently relatively stable, and there is no trend towards increasingly negative mass balance.

During the past 80 years with predominantly negative mass balance, several Svalbard glaciers have retreated, but many glaciers have mainly thinned, as a supraglacial debris cover have protected the glacier surface against ablation near the terminus. Due to the prevailing permafrost conditions, the supraglacial debris layer essentially functions as a normal active layer on top of a permafrost body. Consequently, such glaciers still stand with their front at their maximum Little Ice Age position. The glacier Longyearbreen shortly outside Longyearbyen is a fine example of this.

Early history

Svalbard appears in 12^th century Icelandic and Norwegian written records, and early Norse knowledge about the archipelago is commonly assumed. The name 'Svalbard' is thought to be of Norse origin, referring to 'cold or barren coasts'. Russian people (the Pomors) may have visited the archipelago early in the 16^th century, but no solid proof of this nor the Norse discovery of Svalbard has been presented. Undisputed, however, is the discovery of Svalbard by a Dutch expedition under the navigator Willem Barents in 1596.

Willem Barents made three voyages from the Netherlands in search of a northeast passage to Asia. The first vessel sailed June 5, 1594, reached the northeastern extremity of Novaya Zemlya and returned. A second expedition of seven vessels was sent out the following year, but too late in the season to be successful. On the third expedition, which started in May 1596, Barents discovered and named Spitsbergen (now Svalbard). There his two vessels separated to conduct independent explorations. Barents and his crew spent a miserable winter frozen in at the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya. On June 13, 1597, they left in two open boats; Barents died shortly afterward. The survivors reached the shores of the Kola peninsula and were rescued by the second ship of the expedition. The Barents Sea, which he crossed in 1594, 1596, and 1597, and Barents Island in the Svalbard archipelago are named for him.

At the time of discovery, weather Norse, Russian or Dutch, Svalbard was often considered as part of Greenland, assumed to extend from southernmost Greenland near the Norse settlements, north of Iceland, to Novaya Zemlya at the Russian coast. For this reason, shortly after the discovery by Barents, the Danish king Christian IV claimed Svalbard to be part of the Danish-Norwegian kingdom. Whalers of several nationalities, especially English, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian and German, were active in the waters around Svalbard from early in the 17^th century, reaching a culmination in the period 1630-1635 for hunting in the fjords and coastal waters of NW Svalbard. Not only whales, but also walruses and seals were the objects for hunting. Later in the 17^th century, whaling moved towards the open sea west of Spitsbergen, close by the drift ice along NE Greenland.

Dutch wintering at Smeerenburg, NW Svalbard, 17th century

As the whaling activity changed character in the late 17^th century the European presence on the islands of Svalbard declined and was followed by Russian (the Pomors) dominance from the early 18^th century. The Pomor people was living along the coasts of the White Sea in NW Russia and during the 16^th century they gradually extended their hunting activities into the Barents Sea area, presumably reaching Svalbard around the mid 17^th century. Some investigations of remains from Russian buildings on Svalbard, however, indicate these to date from the previous century and the question about the timing of the first Pomor discovery of Svalbard still remains to be solved. The Pomors traditionally used the name ‘Grumant’ for Svalbard, presumably referring to ‘Greenland’.

Planned or by accident, wintering on Svalbard was attempted with varying degree of success at several occasions before the Russian period, but the Pomors were the first to do this in a bigger and more organized scale. They mainly hunted walrus, but would also take various bird species, arctic fox, Svalbard reindeer and polar bear. Many remains of their wooden houses are still found along the coasts of many islands in Svalbard. Following a series of bad years with low catches, loss of ships and crew the Russian period abruptly came to an end around 1750. Within few years, however, this was followed by a surge of renewed Norwegian hunting activity (especially whales and walruses) around the archipelago, using new technology such as the steam engine and harpoon guns.

Research expeditions

As Great Britain during the 18^th century became the undisputed leading sea power, the Royal Navy became interested also in the Arctic waters.  One naval expedition with two ships, the ‘Phillips expedition’, in 1773 visited the Svalbard area with the purpose of investigating the geography of the area as well as looking into the possibilities of crossing the Arctic Ocean by ship. Unfortunately, however, shortly north of Nordaustlandet both ships were stopped by solid sea ice and the expedition had to return to England.

The 19^th century experienced a significant number of scientific expeditions to Svalbard, mainly with the purpose of studying the Geography of the archipelago and other adjoining Arctic regions, but also driven by a desire of displaying national strength. As one example among others, the famous German geographer August Peterman in 1868 argued for a German expedition to the North Pole using expressions such as ‘national strength’ and ‘national importance’. Several expeditions expressively wanted to use Svalbard as basis for attempts to reach the North Pole, such as the ill-fated Andreé attempt in 1897 to reach the pole by balloon from NW Spitsbergen.

The Norwegian geologist and professor Baltazar Mathias Keilhau initiated systematic research on Svalbard in 1827. In the mid-19th century, when the new theory of past Ice Ages competed with Darwin’s theory on the Origin of Species as being the hottest issue in contemporary natural sciences, outstanding scientists like Otto Torell of Sweden came to Svalbard to experience the action of glaciers and ice caps. Also other nations such as France were active such as exemplified by the Recherché-expeditions 1838 and 1839. In general, the main purpose was investigations of the physical geography of Svalbard, but also biological, geological and meteorological investigations were carried out. These expeditions were followed by a series of expeditions 1864-1873 by the famous Swedish-Finnish geologist Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. Also the ‘International Polar Year 1882-83’ further stimulated research initiatives in the Svalbard area and other arctic regions.

Mining activities

At several occasions since the early 17^th century ships had taken small amounts of coal from coastal exposures, but for private use only. The Norwegian skipper Søren Zachariassen presumably carried out the first commercial mining operation in 1899, in Isfjorden (about 40,000 kg), for later sale in Norway. This was only a small-scale undertaking, but following 1900, several coal companies were established in Norway with the purpose of initiating more comprehensive mining operations on Svalbard. A British-Norwegian company, Spitzbergen Coal and Trading Co., in 1905 established the first mining town – Advent City – on the NE shore of Adventbay in central Spitsbergen. This mining attempt, however, was abandoned after few years, in 1908. A Norwegian-American company The Arctic Coal Company took over the area on the SW side of Adventbay in 1905 and within short time began mining operations. The American mining entrepreneur John M. Longyear founded the present main settlement Longyearbyen (Longyear City) at that occasion. Russian interests shortly after this established themselves with mining operations near the modern Russian settlement Barentsburg a few years before the 1^st world war. The Arctic Coal Company in 1916 was sold to the Norwegian company Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani A/S (SNSK). 

Norwegian national interest in supply of coal from Svalbard gradually grew, especially during the British war-induced blockade in 1917.  Today, SNSK remains as one of the two coal mining companies excavating coal in Svalbard today. The other is Trust Arktikugol, a Russian company mining the deposits in and around Barentsburg. 

Advent City summer 1907, looking NE.

No permanent settlement took place on Svalbard until after coal mining began in the early 20th century. Since then, coal mining has been the major industry on Svalbard. Until recently, the Norwegian mining activity has mainly been concentrated around the town Longyearbyen in central Spitsbergen. Today Longyearbyen is the chief port and administrative center of Svalbard. Other nations, such as Netherlands, Russia and Sweden also established themselves with mining facilities in the early 20^th century, although none of the mining activities carried out in the 20^th century ever turned out to be profitable from an economical point of view. In the early 21^st century, new large-scale Norwegian mining operations by Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani A/S at the old Swedish mining town Svea (Spitsbergen) may for the first time turn out to be economical profitable.

The Svalbard treaty

In the late 19th century Norway clearly was the most heavily engaged nation on Svalbard, even though Svalbard internationally still was considered as terra nullius, a no man’s land. For potential economical reasons, in 1871 it was considered by Norway and especially Sweden (at that time in union) to investigate the possibility of obtaining international recognition of a Norwegian claim to Svalbard. The Norwegian government was not entirely happy by this initiative, which soon was halted by Russia, who claimed traditional Russian interest in the region.

As tensions within the Swedish-Norwegian union grew until its end in 1905, the question about the sovereignty over Svalbard became a Norwegian national issue. From 1907 the Norwegian government initiated talks between nations with traditional interest on Svalbard, in order to resolve the question of the future status of the archipelago. This was followed up by an international conference in 1909, where a Norwegian administration of Svalbard was suggested in the invitation. The Swedish government, however, protested against this, instead suggesting a common Norwegian-Swedish-Russian council for Svalbard – a condominium model. USA and Germany, both having potential economic interest in the area, objected to this model, as it effectively would remove Svalbard’s terra nullius status. An international conference in Oslo on the future status of Svalbard was then prepared for June 1914. On the conference, growing international tension, especially between Germany and Russia, halted attempts towards agreement on the Svalbard issue and during the following war further negations were suspended. The war, however, especially to Russia demonstrated the importance of free access to the Barents Sea and the railway to Murmansk was constructed within few years. Russian and subsequent Soviet interest in the Svalbard region for this strategic reason grew towards the end of the war. At the same time, various British interests argued for the importance of having a British naval base on Svalbard.

Shortly before the end of the 1st world war, on 3rd March 1918, the new USSR government made peace with Germany in Brest-Litovsk (Poland). In the peace treaty USSR agreed to support a German claim on Svalbard, where Germany had operated a meteorological station (Das Deutsche Geophysikalische Observatorium in Spitsbergen) at the summit of Nordenskiöldfjellet (1911-12) near Longyearbyen and later (1912-14) at Ebeltofthamna, shortly NW of Ny Ålesund. These observations were planned as providing meteorological background for a subsequent attempt to reach the North Pole by a German airship designed by Graf von Zeppelin. Due to the war, however, the attempt was never carried out, but the British government looked upon this new development with considerable concern, as Svalbard was considered as the gateway to the Arctic Basin. In order to secure their presence, the British government therefore actively supported private British activities on Svalbard by the British Exploration Company, which hired prominent persons such as Sir E. Shackleton, known from his Antarctic expeditions and daring attempt to reach the South Pole in 1915

At the peace conference in Paris 1919-1920, sovereignty over Svalbard was claimed by Norway, partly as compensation for losses endured during the war, partly based upon previous Norwegian activity in the area. France supported the Norwegian proposal and also USA and UK was at least in principle positive. A somewhat modified treaty, giving sovereignty to Norway but also ensuring rights of foreign citizens, was finally signed on 9. February 1920. The sovereignty was formally put in effect on August 14th 1925, from which date Svalbard officially became a part of the Kingdom of Norway. The Svalbard treaty has later received accepts from more than 40 nations. Neither Germany nor USSR were invited to participate in the negotiations in Paris. Germany, however, became a signatory power in 1925 and USSR in 1935, following recognition of the Soviet government by USA in 1934.

Limitations in Norwegian sovereignty were that all signatories should have equal rights to exploit mineral deposits in Svalbard, subject to Norwegian regulation. Norway was also supposed to work out a mining code and settle any conflicting property claims within the region. Also according to the treaty, Svalbard should remain as a demilitarized area. The Norwegian government should recognize historical rights within the region and regulations should be formulated in order to protect flora and fauna. This has later been specified in a comprehensive set of environmental regulations for Svalbard, addressing traffic, litter storage, pollution and the management of wild life. Since the treaty came into force, the Norwegian Ministry of Industry has administered Svalbard, through a governor (Sysselmann) residing in Longyearbyen.

The interwar period

Longyearbyen summer 1935, looking SW towards the two glaciers Lars- and Longyearbreen.

During the interwar period most mining companies active on Svalbard experienced great problems and many of them terminated activities. Only the Norwegian company Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani A/S and the Soviet state trust Arktikugeol continued coal mining during the 1930s. A little more than 300,000 tons coal was shipped from Svalbard each year during the period 1925-1929, mainly from the Norwegian mining activities. The interwar period was a golden period for wintering trappers and for sealing in the adjacent waters. Cod fisheries experienced a short upswing around 1930 when 20^th century temperatures reached their maximum following the marked increase 1915-1920. At Ny-Ålesund in NW Spitsbergen, a landing station for cod was established at that time. Also tourism was becoming an industry during the prewar period, especially during the 1930s and a regular passenger route from Norway was established in 1934.

The 2^nd world war  

German military personnel awaits evacuation by air from the improvised Bansö airstrip in lower Adventdalen (at the present Auroral Station), Spitsbergen, July 1942. The leader of the Wehrmacht Arctic Meteorological Programme, Dr. E. Etienne, is seated to the right (wearing hat), talking with pilot Lieutenant Schütze. Dr. Etienne was killed in an air crash at Moskushamn, near Longyearbyen, a few weeks (23.07.1942) after this photo was taken.

Norway was occupied by German troops in April 1940. This had, however, no immediate consequences for mining and other activities on Svalbard, as both Germany and the Norwegian government in exile in London wanted all Svalbard activities, including broadcast of daily meteorological observations, to continue as before.

Following the German attack on USSR June 1941 the Barents Sea and Svalbard suddenly became strategic important in relation to supplying USSR from the west. Of special importance was access to meteorological observations from Svalbard for both protection and attack on convoys from UK to Murmansk. Not possessing the means to occupy and hold Svalbard at that time, the British and Norwegian administration decided to evacuate all people from Svalbard, an operation which was effected August-September 1941. Most mining facilities was made inoperable and stores of oil and coal was set on fire. 

Shortly after the evacuation the German Wehrmacht landed a small unit and established a meteorological station shortly SE of Longyearbyen. This station was evacuated the following summer after being spotted by the British Royal Air Force, but throughout the war, the German army from time to time established both manned and sophisticated automatic meteorological stations at various sites in the Svalbard region, in order to acquire meteorological observations. The last unit of the Wehrmacht to surrender in the 2^nd world war did this September 1945 in Rijpfjorden, northernmost Nordaustlandet. Two years earlier, in September 1943, German warships – including the battleship Tirpitz - attacked both Barentsburg, Grumant and Longyearbyen, demolishing and burning most buildings and mining facilities. Svea and Ny-Ålesund were raided in 1944.

Longyearbyen April 1944 after the German raid in September 1943. Looking SW in up valley direction. Compare with the 1935 photo above. The mine in the mountain to the left continued to burn until 1952.

The post-war period

In November 1944, when the Red Army was entering northernmost Norway via Finland, the Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov suggested that the Svalbard treaty should be revised. According to the Soviet point of view, Svalbard should be governed by a joint Norwegian-USSR administration and Bjørnøya (Bear Island) should become Russian. The Norwegian government refused this but accepted that the future military status of Svalbard could be discussed. The USSR proposal was reiterated in 1946 but at that time the Norwegian government flatly rejected to discuss any changes in the treaty. The following ‘cold war’ then made other matters more pressing for the USSR administration and revising the Svalbard treaty was not considered of prime importance any more.

Shortly after the war both Norwegian and USSR mining facilities on Svalbard was reestablished. In 1949 Norway became a member of NATO and in 1951 USSR protested against the establishment of a NATO joint command including Svalbard, although under the specific condition that no military structures should be established on Svalbard. Later, in 1958-59, USSR launched protests against Norwegian plans of establishing an airfield at Ny-Ålesund and in 1964 against the construction of a telemetry station, also at Ny-Ålesund, intended for communication with satellites operated by the European Space Research Organization (ESRO). Also the issue of establishment of a modern airport near Longyearbyen led to contacts between Norway and USSR. Eventually the airport was opened in 1975 with Russian access to facilities as well. Today this airport is vital for most activities on Svalbard, with scheduled daily flights to Europe and to local destinations (Svea and Ny-Ålesund) on Spitsbergen. It should be emphasized, however, that by tradition, local relations between the Norwegian and Russian population in Svalbard always have been friendly and remained so even during the so-called ‘cold war’.

During the final part of the 20^th century Norway invested heavily in development of Longyearbyen, especially in the years after 1990. At the same time, Russian mining operations were limited to Barentsburg, closing both Grumantbyen (1961) and Pyramiden (1998). Especially the years following the collapse of USSR were difficult for the Russian population and mining industry. Before the reopening of Norwegian mining operations at Svea in 2000, diminishing coal reserves at Longyearbyen precipitated Norwegian plans for enhancing the tourist industry and establishment of a university (UNIS, see below) in Longyearbyen.

Longyearbyen seen towards east across Adventdalen, April 2000

The size of the present population of Svalbard is not precisely known, but is estimated to about 2,400 (July 2000). Little more than 1420 persons are living in Longyearbyen (78^oN), the northernmost town on the planet and the largest settlement on Svalbard, followed by Barentsburg (about 850 inhabitants). Tourism now represents an important means of income for the population on Svalbard, as does the new university in Longyearbyen, although coal mining remains as the major economic activity on Svalbard. There is also some trapping of seal, polar bear, fox, and walrus, although of little economic importance.

Tourism

Tourism on Svalbard started as expedition-like arrangements for English gentlemen, the leisured class, in the latter half of the 19^th century.  Very soon similar tourism from other nations such as, e.g. France, were initiated. After few years, however, this was followed by cruise arrangements for larger groups of other people as well, often using whaling boats available in Norway. Even the American mining entrepreneur John M. Longyear, founder of Longyearbyen in 1905, first came to Svalbard as a tourist a few years before. The media attention created by the many dramatic attempts at reaching the North Pole from Svalbard no doubt contributed to the growing interest in visiting Svalbard as a tourist. In 1896 a small hotel was constructed at the coast of Adventbay in central Spitsbergen, near the present administrative center Longyearbyen, in order to make land-based tourism activities possible as well. This initiative represents the beginning of organized tourism on Svalbard.

Longyearbyen town center July 2001. The glacier Longyearbreen terminates shortly outside the town limit.

Today, at the beginning of the 21st century, modern tourism on Svalbard is still centered on Longyearbyen, where an international airport, harbor, several modern hotels and other lodging facilities, restaurants, pubs, shops, indoor sport and swimming facilities, museum and even a gallery are at hand. Cruises as well as land-based tours are arranged for tourists throughout the summer, while skiing and snowscooter tours are popular winter activities, especially from March to May. Each year several thousands of tourists visit Svalbard.

UNIS

UNIS early October 2001, seen towards NE.

Since 1993 Svalbard houses the northernmost university in the world, located in Longyearbyen and specializing in Arctic Geology, Arctic Biology, Arctic Geophysics and Arctic Technology. The University Courses on Svalbard (UNIS) is a private foundation established by the Norwegian government and owned by Norway's four universities. The objective of the foundation is to offer university-level courses and to perform research relevant to Svalbard's geographical location in the high arctic. The location of UNIS in central Spitsbergen provides research and tuition with an ideal background for laboratory work, and the collection and analysis of data.  

Lecture theatre at UNIS

The courses at UNIS are all taught in English and intended to lead to examinations and degrees at intermediate, advanced and doctoral level. By 2000, UNIS had a scientific full-time staff of 14, plus 11 adjunct professors and about 175 international guest teachers. A total of 242 students representing 21 nationalities attended tuition or worked on masters or doctoral projects at UNIS in 2000. UNIS has initiated several research projects around Longyearbyen and in other parts of Svalbard. By autumn 2005, a significant enlargement of UNIS will be completed.  

Svalbard Science Center under construction 4. April 2005, looking north. The old UNIS building is seen to the left.

In the longer term, UNIS will form the core of the Svalbard Science Center (SSC), an international Arctic center of expertise in research and education on Svalbard, which will also incorporate a large number of professional and scientific institutions represented on Svalbard.

Research facilities in Ny-Ålesund

Ny Ålesund seen towards SE, July 2000

In Ny-Ålesund the former Norwegian coal mining company Kings Bay operates the worlds northernmost permanent settlement, Ny-Ålesund (79^o45'N), on a year-round basis. Infrastructure and other logistical services such as full board and lodging to scientists and research stations operating in Ny-Ålesund are provided by a permanent staff consisting of 20-30 people. 

Ny-Ålesund was founded as a mining settlement in 1917, but following a serious disaster in 1962, the Norwegian government in 1963 decided to stop further mining operations in this area.

The Norwegian Government later designated Ny-Ålesund to be the center for environmental research at Svalbard. All other activities in Ny-Ålesund must pay due consideration to the needs and demands of the research activities. The aim is to develop Ny-Ålesund into a leading international environmental research and monitoring station in the Arctic. Norway, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and France all have established their own permanent research stations in Ny-Ålesund.  Each year scientists from at least fifteen nations come here to work on a total of 120 different research projects.

Further reading

Arlov, Thor B.: A short history of Svalbard. Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, Norway, 1994.

Arlov, Thor B.: Svalbards historie. Aschenhoug, Oslo, 1996.|

Helle, Audun: Geology of Svalbard. Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, Norway, 1993.

Mehlum, Fridtjof: Birds and mammals of Svalbard. Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, Norway, 1990.

Rønning, Olaf I.: The flora of Svalbard. Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, Norway, 1996.

Latest update: 2. April 2007.